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Graphite

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Graphite_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Graphite (disambiguation)">Graphite (disambiguation)</a>. Not to be confused with <a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color:black; background-color: #8BAFDA">Graphite</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Graphite specimen</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:black; background-color: #8BAFDA">General</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Category</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Native_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Native mineral">Native mineral</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Formula</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="List_of_mineral_symbols" title="List of mineral symbols">IMA symbol</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Gr<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Nickel%E2%80%93Strunz_classification" title="Nickel–Strunz classification">Strunz classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1.CB.05a</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Crystal_system" title="Crystal system">Crystal system</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Hexagonal_crystal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal crystal system">Hexagonal</a> or <a href="Rhombohedral_crystal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombohedral crystal system">Rhombohedral</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Crystal_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal class">Crystal class</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dihexagonal dipyramidal (6/mmm) <a href="Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin_notation" title="Hermann–Mauguin notation">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>: (6/m 2/m 2/m)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Space_group" title="Space group">Space group</a></th><td class="infobox-data">P63mc (buckled) P63/mmc (flat)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Crystal_structure#Unit_cell" title="Crystal structure">Unit cell</a></th><td class="infobox-data">a = 2.461, c = 6.708 [Å]; Z = 4</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:black; background-color: #8BAFDA">Identification</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Color</th><td class="infobox-data">Iron-black to steel-gray; deep blue in transmitted light</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">Crystal habit</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tabular, six-sided <a href="Foliation_(geology)" title="Foliation (geology)">foliated</a> masses, granular to compacted masses</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Crystal_twinning" title="Crystal twinning">Twinning</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Cleavage_(crystal)" title="Cleavage (crystal)">Cleavage</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Basal – perfect on {0001}</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Fracture_(mineralogy)" title="Fracture (mineralogy)">Fracture</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Flaky, otherwise rough when not on cleavage</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Tenacity_(mineralogy)" title="Tenacity (mineralogy)">Tenacity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Flexible non-elastic, sectile</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs scale</a> hardness</th><td class="infobox-data">1–2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Lustre_(mineralogy)" title="Lustre (mineralogy)">Luster</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Metallic, earthy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Streak_(mineralogy)" title="Streak (mineralogy)">Streak</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Black</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">Diaphaneity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Opaque, transparent only in extremely thin flakes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">Specific gravity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1.9–2.3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Density" title="Density">Density</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2.09–2.23 g/cm3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Optical properties</th><td class="infobox-data">Uniaxial (−)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Pleochroism" title="Pleochroism">Pleochroism</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Strong</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Solubility" title="Solubility">Solubility</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Soluble in molten <a href="Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, warm <a href="Chlorosulfuric_acid" title="Chlorosulfuric acid">chlorosulfuric acid</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other characteristics</th><td class="infobox-data">strongly anisotropic, conducts electricity, greasy feel, readily marks</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">References</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-HBM-5">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Graphite (/ˈɡræfaɪt/) is a <a href="Crystallinity" title="Crystallinity">crystalline</a> allotrope (form) of the element <a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>. It consists of many stacked <a href="Layered_materials" title="Layered materials">layers</a> of <a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>, typically in excess of hundreds of layers. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under <a href="Standard_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions">standard conditions</a>. Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on a large scale (1.3 million metric tons per year in 2022) for uses in many critical industries including <a href="Refractories" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractories">refractories</a> (50%), <a href="Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">lithium-ion batteries</a> (18%), <a href="Foundries" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundries">foundries</a> (10%), and <a href="Lubricants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubricants">lubricants</a> (5%), among others (17%).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Graphite converts to <a href="Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> under extremely high pressure and temperature. Graphite's low cost, thermal and chemical inertness and characteristic conductivity of heat and electricity finds numerous applications in high energy and high temperature processes.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_varieties">Types and varieties</h2></div>

Graphite can occur naturally or be produced synthetically. Natural graphite is obtained from naturally occurring geologic deposits and synthetic graphite is produced through human activity.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-BanekEtAl_GR1-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural">Natural</h3></div>

Graphite occurs naturally in <a href="Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> that can be classified as either amorphous (microcrystalline) or crystalline (flake or lump/chip) which is determined by the ore <a href="Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">morphology</a>, <a href="Crystallinity" title="Crystallinity">crystallinity</a>, and <a href="Grain_size" title="Grain size">grain size</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a> All naturally occurring graphite deposits are formed from the <a href="Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a> of <a href="Carbonaceous" title="Carbonaceous">carbonaceous</a> <a href="Sedimentary_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary rocks">sedimentary rocks</a>, and the ore type is due to its geologic setting. <a href="Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a> that has been thermally metamorphosed is the typical source of amorphous graphite. Crystalline flake graphite is mined from <a href="Carbonaceous" title="Carbonaceous">carbonaceous</a> <a href="Metamorphic_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic rocks">metamorphic rocks</a>, while lump or chip graphite is mined from veins which occur in high-grade <a href="Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> regions.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a> There are serious negative environmental impacts to graphite mining.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthetic">Synthetic</h3></div>

Synthetic graphite has high purity and is usually produced by the thermal <a href="Graphitization" title="Graphitization">graphitization</a> of <a href="Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> materials at temperatures in excess of 2,100 °C, most commonly through the <a href="Acheson_process" title="Acheson process">Acheson process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Acheson_1906-9">[9]</a> The high temperatures are maintained for weeks, and are required not only to form the graphite from the precursor carbons but also to <a href="Vaporize" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaporize">vaporize</a> any impurities that may be present, including hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, organics, and metals.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a> The resulting synthetic graphite is highly pure—in excess of 99.9% C purity—but typically has lower density, conductivity and a higher porosity than its natural equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a> Synthetic graphite can be formed into very large (centimeter-scale) flakes while maintaining its high purity, unlike almost all sources of natural graphite.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_PP1802J-7">[7]</a> Synthetic graphite can also be formed by other methods including by <a href="Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">chemical vapor deposition</a> from hydrocarbons at temperatures above 2,500 K (2,230 °C), by decomposition of thermally unstable <a href="Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a>, or by <a href="Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a> from metal melts <a href="Supersaturated" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersaturated">supersaturated</a> with <a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3></div>

Research and development efforts continue into new methods for the industrial production of graphite for a variety of applications, including <a href="Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">lithium-ion batteries</a>, refractories, and foundries, among others. Significant work has been done on graphitizing of traditionally non-graphitizable carbons. A company in <a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> utilizes forestry waste to produce what they have termed 'biographite' through a process referred to as thermo-catalytic <a href="Graphitization" title="Graphitization">graphitization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Another group in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> uses a method referred to as <a href="Photocatalytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocatalytic">photocatalytic</a> graphitization to produce highly crystalline highly pure graphite for lithium-ion batteries and other applications from a variety of carbon sources.<a href="#cite_note-BanekEtAl_GR1-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-BanekEtAl_GR2-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_2">Natural</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h3></div>

Graphite occurs in <a href="Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic rocks</a> as a result of the <a href="Reduction_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduction (chemistry)">reduction</a> of <a href="Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary</a> carbon compounds during <a href="Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a>. It also occurs in <a href="Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a> and in <a href="Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HBM-5">[5]</a> <a href="Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> associated with graphite include <a href="Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>, <a href="Mica" title="Mica">micas</a> and <a href="Tourmaline" title="Tourmaline">tourmaline</a>. The principal export sources of mined graphite are, in order of tonnage, <a href="China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and <a href="Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MineralsDatabase-14">[14]</a> Significant unexploited graphite resources also exist in <a href="Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>'s <a href="Cordillera_Central_(Colombia)" title="Cordillera Central (Colombia)">Cordillera Central</a> in the form of graphite-bearing <a href="Schist" title="Schist">schists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

In <a href="Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>, graphite occurs with <a href="Troilite" title="Troilite">troilite</a> and <a href="Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate minerals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HBM-5">[5]</a> Small graphitic crystals in <a href="Meteoritic_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteoritic iron">meteoritic iron</a> are called <a href="Cliftonite" title="Cliftonite">cliftonite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-16">[16]</a> Some microscopic grains have distinctive <a href="Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopic</a> compositions, indicating that they were formed before the <a href="Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> They are one of about 12 known types of minerals that predate the Solar System and have also been detected in <a href="Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a>. These minerals were formed in the <a href="Ejecta" title="Ejecta">ejecta</a> when <a href="Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a> exploded or low to intermediate-sized stars expelled their outer envelopes late in their lives. Graphite may be the second or third oldest mineral in the Universe.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3></div>

Graphite consists of sheets of trigonal planar carbon.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The individual layers are called <a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>. In each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms forming a continuous layer of sp2 bonded carbon hexagons, like a <a href="Honeycomb_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeycomb lattice">honeycomb lattice</a> with a bond length of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Bonding between layers is relatively weak <a href="Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals bonds</a>, which allows the graphene-like layers to be easily separated and to glide past each other.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Electrical conductivity perpendicular to the layers is consequently about 1000 times lower.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

There are two allotropic forms called alpha (<a href="Hexagonal_crystal_family" title="Hexagonal crystal family">hexagonal</a>) and beta (<a href="Rhombohedral_crystal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombohedral crystal system">rhombohedral</a>), differing in terms of the stacking of the graphene layers: stacking in alpha graphite is ABA, as opposed to ABC stacking in the energetically less stable beta graphite. Rhombohedral graphite cannot occur in pure form.<a href="#cite_note-Gold-25">[25]</a> Natural graphite, or commercial natural graphite, contains 5 to 15% rhombohedral graphite<a href="#cite_note-rhombo-26">[26]</a> and this may be due to intensive milling.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through shear forces, and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated to 1300 °C for four hours.<a href="#cite_note-rhombo-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold-25">[25]</a>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">Scanning tunneling microscope</a> image of graphite surface</div>

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<div class="gallerytext">Side view of ABA layer stacking</div>

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<div class="gallerytext">Plane view of layer stacking</div>

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<div class="gallerytext">Alpha graphite's <a href="Unit_cell" title="Unit cell">unit cell</a> </div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</h3></div>

The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond is well established theoretically and experimentally. The pressure changes linearly between 1.7 <a href="Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">GPa</a> at 0 K and 12 GPa at 5000 K (the diamond/graphite/liquid <a href="Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Bundy-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At <a href="Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">normal temperature and pressure</a>, 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa), the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is <a href="Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a> and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible.<a href="#cite_note-ChemThermo-30">[30]</a> However, at temperatures above about 4500 K, diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 2000 K, a pressure of 35 GPa is needed.<a href="#cite_note-Bundy-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_properties">Other properties</h3></div>

The <a href="Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> and <a href="Heat" title="Heat">thermal</a> properties of graphite are highly <a href="Anisotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisotropic">anisotropic</a>, since <a href="Phonons" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonons">phonons</a> propagate quickly along the tightly bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen-containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form <a href="Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> at temperatures of 700 °C and above.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

Graphite is an <a href="Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductor</a>, hence useful in such applications as <a href="Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">arc lamp</a> <a href="Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a>. It can conduct electricity due to the vast <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> <a href="Delocalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Delocalization">delocalization</a> within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called <a href="Aromaticity" title="Aromaticity">aromaticity</a>). These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers. The conductive properties of powdered graphite<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> allow its use as pressure sensor in <a href="Carbon_microphone" title="Carbon microphone">carbon microphones</a>.

Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for their self-lubricating and dry <a href="Lubricant" title="Lubricant">lubricating</a> properties. However, the use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate <a href="Pitting_corrosion" title="Pitting corrosion">pitting corrosion</a> in some <a href="Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> and to promote <a href="Galvanic_corrosion" title="Galvanic corrosion">galvanic corrosion</a> between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture. For this reason, the <a href="US_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="US Air Force">US Air Force</a> banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Even graphite <a href="Pencil" title="Pencil">pencil</a> marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Another high-temperature lubricant, <a href="Boron_nitride" title="Boron nitride">hexagonal boron nitride</a>, has the same molecular structure as graphite. It is sometimes called white graphite, due to its similar properties.

When a large number of crystallographic defects bind its planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as <a href="Pyrolytic_graphite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrolytic graphite">pyrolytic graphite</a>. It is also highly anisotropic, and <a href="Diamagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamagnetic">diamagnetic</a>, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. (If it is made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood-contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called <a href="Pyrolytic_carbon" title="Pyrolytic carbon">pyrolytic carbon</a>, and is not diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>)

For a long time graphite has been considered to be hydrophobic. However, recent studies using highly ordered pyrolytic graphite have shown that freshly clean graphite is hydrophilic (<a href="Contact_angle" title="Contact angle">contact angle</a> of 70° approximately), and it becomes hydrophobic (contact angle of 95° approximately) due to airborne pollutants (hydrocarbons) present in the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Those contaminants also alter the electric equipotential surface of graphite by creating domains with potential differences of up to 200 mV as measured with <a href="Kelvin_probe_force_microscope" title="Kelvin probe force microscope">kelvin probe force microscopy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a> Such contaminants can be desorbed by increasing the temperature of graphite to approximately 50 °C or higher.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a>

Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_use">History of use</h2></div>

In the 4th millennium <a href="BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a>, during the <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> Age in southeastern Europe, the <a href="Boian_culture" title="Boian culture">Marița culture</a> used graphite in a ceramic paint for decorating <a href="Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-41">[41]</a>

Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to <a href="Grey_Knotts" title="Grey Knotts">Grey Knotts</a> from the hamlet of <a href="Seathwaite%2C_Allerdale" class="mw-redirect" title="Seathwaite, Allerdale">Seathwaite</a> in <a href="Borrowdale" title="Borrowdale">Borrowdale parish</a>, <a href="Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a>, <a href="England" title="England">England</a>, which the locals found useful for marking sheep.<a href="#cite_note-norgate-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-wainwright_western-43">[43]</a> During the reign of <a href="Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a <a href="Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and <a href="Pencil" title="Pencil">pencils</a>, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by <a href="Joseph_Dixon_(inventor)" title="Joseph Dixon (inventor)">Joseph Dixon</a> and partner <a href="Orestes_Cleveland" title="Orestes Cleveland">Orestes Cleveland</a> in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the Engineering & Mining Journal 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

The beginnings of the revolutionary <a href="Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">froth flotation</a> process are associated with graphite mining. Included in the E&MJ article on the Dixon Crucible Company is a sketch of the "floating tanks" used in the age-old process of extracting graphite. Because graphite is so light, the mix of graphite and waste was sent through a final series of water tanks where a cleaner graphite "floated" off, which left waste to drop out. In an 1877 patent, the two brothers Bessel (Adolph and August) of Dresden, Germany, took this "floating" process a step further and added a small amount of oil to the tanks and boiled the mix – an agitation or frothing step – to collect the graphite, the first steps toward the future flotation process. Adolph Bessel received the Wohler Medal for the patented process that upgraded the recovery of graphite to 90% from the German deposit. In 1977, the German Society of Mining Engineers and Metallurgists organized a special symposium dedicated to their discovery and, thus, the 100th anniversary of flotation.<a href="#cite_note-nguyen-47">[47]</a>

In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite.<a href="#cite_note-nguyen-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_names">Other names </h3></div>

Historically, graphite was called black lead or plumbago.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Plumbago was commonly used in its <a href="Crystal_habit#Massive" title="Crystal habit">massive</a> mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing <a href="Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> ores, particularly <a href="Galena" title="Galena">galena</a>. The Latin word for lead, <a href="Plumbum" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumbum">plumbum</a>, gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or <a href="Plumbago" title="Plumbago">plumbagos</a>, plants with flowers that resemble this colour.

The term black lead usually refers to a powdered or processed graphite, matte black in color.

<a href="Abraham_Gottlob_Werner" title="Abraham Gottlob Werner">Abraham Gottlob Werner</a> coined the name graphite ("writing stone") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after <a href="Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a> in 1778 proved that these were at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds <a href="Molybdenum_sulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Molybdenum sulfide">molybdenum sulfide</a> (<a href="Molybdenite" title="Molybdenite">molybdenite</a>), <a href="Lead(II)_sulfide" title="Lead(II) sulfide">lead(II) sulfide</a> (<a href="Galena" title="Galena">galena</a>) and graphite were three different soft black minerals.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refractories">Refractories</h3></div>

The use of graphite as a <a href="Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite <a href="Crucible" title="Crucible">crucibles</a> used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of <a href="Refractory" title="Refractory">refractories</a>. In the mid-1980s, the carbon-<a href="Magnesite" title="Magnesite">magnesite</a> brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. As of 2017 the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles.

Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite bricks requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there is now much more flexibility in the size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories. Alumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures. Graphite blocks are also used in parts of <a href="Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> linings<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical to ensuring adequate cooling of the bottom and hearth of the furnace.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of carbon-magnesite bricks.

The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000–2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per <a href="Tonne" title="Tonne">tonne</a> of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures. Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by <a href="RHI_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="RHI AG">RHI AG</a> and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now China. Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement.

According to the <a href="United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">USGS</a>, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Batteries">Batteries</h3></div>

The use of graphite in batteries has increased since the 1970s. Natural and synthetic graphite are used as an <a href="Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> material to construct <a href="Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> in major battery technologies.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

Graphite is the "predominant anode material used today in lithium-ion batteries".<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Electric-vehicle (EV) batteries contain four basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator. While there is much focus on the cathode materials—lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc., the anode material used in virtually all EV batteries is graphite.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

The demand for batteries, primarily <a href="Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">nickel–metal hydride</a> and <a href="Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">lithium-ion batteries</a>, caused a growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s – a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable <a href="CD_player" title="CD player">CD players</a> and <a href="Power_tool" title="Power tool">power tools</a>. <a href="Laptop" title="Laptop">Laptops</a>, <a href="Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>, <a href="Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a>, and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries. Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand. As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric <a href="Nissan_Leaf" title="Nissan Leaf">Nissan Leaf</a> contains nearly 40 kg of graphite.

Radioactive graphite removed from nuclear reactors has been investigated as a source of electricity for low-power applications. This waste is rich in <a href="Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>, which emits electrons through <a href="Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, so it could potentially be used as the basis for a <a href="Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">betavoltaic device</a>. This concept is known as the <a href="Diamond_battery" title="Diamond battery">diamond battery</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</h3></div>

Natural graphite in <a href="Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a> mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level. An estimate based on <a href="USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>'s graphite consumption statistics indicates that <a href="Steelmaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Steelmaker">steelmakers</a> in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brake_linings">Brake linings</h3></div>

Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or <a href="Brake_shoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brake shoes">brake shoes</a> for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for <a href="Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>. This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to reduce graphite's market share. A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closures has not been beneficial, nor has an indifferent automotive market. According to the <a href="USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>, US natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundry_facings_and_lubricants">Foundry facings and lubricants</h3></div>

A foundry-facing mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite. Painting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will ease the separation of the object cast after the hot metal has cooled. Graphite <a href="Lubricants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubricants">lubricants</a> are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as forging die lubricant, an antiseize agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks. Having low-grit graphite, or even better, no-grit graphite (ultra high purity), is highly desirable. It can be used as a dry powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite (a permanent suspension in a liquid). An estimate based on <a href="USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a> graphite consumption statistics indicates that 2,200 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a> Metal can also be impregnated into graphite to create a self-lubricating alloy for application in extreme conditions, such as bearings for machines exposed to high or low temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Everyday_use">Everyday use</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pencils">Pencils</h4></div>

The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist <a href="Abraham_Gottlob_Werner" title="Abraham Gottlob Werner">Abraham Gottlob Werner</a>. It stems from γράφειν ("graphein"), meaning to write or draw in <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by <a href="Nicolas-Jacques_Cont%C3%A9" title="Nicolas-Jacques Conté">Nicolas-Jacques Conté</a> in 1795.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> It is chemically unrelated to the metal <a href="Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for <a href="Drawing" title="Drawing">drawing</a>, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term <a href="Plumbago_drawing" title="Plumbago drawing">plumbago drawing</a> is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits.

Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1 million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils.<a href="#cite_note-galaxycapital-63">[63]</a> Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

In art, graphite is typically used to create detailed and precise drawings, as it allows for a wide range of values (light to dark) to be achieved. It can also be used to create softer, more subtle lines and shading. Graphite is popular among artists because it is easy to control, easy to erase, and produces a clean, professional look. It is also relatively inexpensive and widely available. Many artists use graphite in conjunction with other media, such as charcoal or ink, to create a range of effects and textures in their work.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Graphite of various hardness or softness results in different qualities and tones when used as an <a href="Artistic_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic medium">artistic medium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SBTCModule6-65">[65]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pinewood_derby">Pinewood derby</h4></div>

Graphite is probably the most-used lubricant in <a href="Pinewood_derby" title="Pinewood derby">pinewood derbies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h3></div>

Natural graphite has found uses in <a href="Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">zinc-carbon batteries</a>, <a href="Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a> brushes, and various specialized applications. Railroads would often mix powdered graphite with <a href="Waste_oil" title="Waste oil">waste oil</a> or linseed oil to create a heat-resistant protective coating for the exposed portions of a steam locomotive's boiler, such as the <a href="Smokebox" title="Smokebox">smokebox</a> or lower part of the <a href="Firebox_(steam_engine)" title="Firebox (steam engine)">firebox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The <a href="Scope_soldering_iron" title="Scope soldering iron">Scope soldering iron</a> uses a graphite tip as its heating element.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expanded_graphite">Expanded graphite</h3></div>

Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of <a href="Chromic_acid" title="Chromic acid">chromic acid</a>, then concentrated <a href="Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a "hot top" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as <a href="Firestop" title="Firestop">firestops</a> fitted around a <a href="Fire_door" title="Fire door">fire door</a> or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in <a href="Fuel_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel cells">fuel cells</a>.

The foil is made into heat sinks for <a href="Laptop_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Laptop computers">laptop computers</a> which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500 tonnes.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intercalated_graphite">Intercalated graphite</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Graphite_intercalation_compound" title="Graphite intercalation compound">Graphite intercalation compound</a></div>

Graphite forms <a href="Graphite_intercalation_compound" title="Graphite intercalation compound">intercalation compounds</a> with some metals and small molecules. In these compounds, the host molecule or atom gets "sandwiched" between the graphite layers, resulting in a type of compound with variable stoichiometry. A prominent example of an intercalation compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula KC8. Some graphite intercalation compounds are <a href="Superconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductors">superconductors</a>. The highest transition temperature (by June 2009) Tc = 11.5 K is achieved in CaC6, and it further increases under applied pressure (15.1 K at 8 GPa).<a href="#cite_note-cac6-68">[68]</a> Graphite's ability to intercalate lithium ions without significant damage from swelling is what makes it the dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mining,_beneficiation,_and_milling">Mining, beneficiation, and milling</h2></div>

Graphite is mined by both <a href="Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open pit</a> and underground methods. Graphite usually needs <a href="Beneficiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beneficiation">beneficiation</a>. This may be carried out by hand-picking the pieces of gangue (rock) and hand-screening the product or by crushing the rock and floating out the graphite. Beneficiation by flotation encounters the difficulty that graphite is very soft and "marks" (coats) the particles of <a href="Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a>. This makes the "marked" gangue particles float off with the graphite, yielding impure concentrate. There are two ways of obtaining a commercial concentrate or product: repeated regrinding and floating (up to seven times) to purify the concentrate, or by acid leaching (dissolving) the gangue with <a href="Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a> (for a silicate gangue) or <a href="Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (for a carbonate gangue).

In milling, the incoming graphite products and concentrates can be ground before being classified (sized or screened), with the coarser flake size fractions (below 8 mesh, 8–20 mesh, 20–50 mesh) carefully preserved, and then the carbon contents are determined. Some standard blends can be prepared from the different fractions, each with a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. Custom blends can also be made for individual customers who want a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. If flake size is unimportant, the concentrate can be ground more freely. Typical end products include a fine powder for use as a slurry in <a href="Oil_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil drilling">oil drilling</a> and coatings for <a href="Foundry" title="Foundry">foundry</a> molds, carbon raiser in the <a href="Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> industry (Synthetic graphite powder and powdered petroleum coke can also be used as carbon raiser). Environmental impacts from graphite mills consist of air pollution including fine particulate exposure of workers and also <a href="Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a> from powder spillages leading to <a href="Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metal</a> contamination of soil.

According to the <a href="United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS), <a href="World_Productions" title="World Productions">world production</a> of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 <a href="Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>, of which the following major exporters are: <a href="China" title="China">China</a> (780,000 t), <a href="India" title="India">India</a> (170,000 t), <a href="Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> (80,000 t), <a href="Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (32,000 t) and <a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> (6,000 t).<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Graphite is not currently mined in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, but there are many historical mine sites including ones in Alabama, Montana, and in the <a href="Adirondacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Adirondacks">Adirondacks</a> of NY.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="Westwater_Resources" title="Westwater Resources">Westwater Resources</a> is in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near <a href="Sylacauga%2C_Alabama" title="Sylacauga, Alabama">Sylacauga, Alabama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000 t valued at $1.07 billion.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupational_safety">Occupational safety</h3></div>

Potential <a href="Health_effect" title="Health effect">health effects</a> include:

<ul><li><a href="Inhalation" title="Inhalation">Inhalation</a>: No inhalation hazard in manufactured and shipped state. Dust and fumes generated from the material can enter the body by inhalation. High concentrations of dust and fumes may irritate the throat and respiratory system and cause coughing. Frequent inhalation of fume/dust over a long period of time increases the risk of developing lung diseases. Prolonged and repeated overexposure to dust can lead to <a href="Pneumoconiosis" title="Pneumoconiosis">pneumoconiosis</a>. Pre-existing pulmonary disorders, such as <a href="Emphysema" title="Emphysema">emphysema</a>, may possibly be aggravated by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of graphite dusts.</li>

<li>Eye contact: Dust in the eyes will cause irritation. Exposed may experience eye tearing, redness, and discomfort.</li>

<li>Skin contact: Under normal conditions of intended use, this material does not pose a risk to health. Dust may irritate skin.</li>

<li><a href="Ingestion" title="Ingestion">Ingestion</a>: Not relevant, due to the form of the product in its manufactured and shipped state. However, ingestion of dusts generated during working operations may cause nausea and vomiting.</li>

<li>Potential physical / chemical effects: Bulk material is non-combustible. The material may form dust and can accumulate electrostatic charges, which may cause an <a href="Electric_spark" title="Electric spark">electrical spark</a> (ignition source). High dust levels may create potential for explosion.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div>

The <a href="Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has set the legal limit (<a href="Permissible_exposure_limit" title="Permissible exposure limit">permissible exposure limit</a>) for graphite exposure in the workplace as a time weighted average (TWA) of 15 million particles per cubic foot (1.5 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The <a href="National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) has set a <a href="Recommended_exposure_limit" title="Recommended exposure limit">recommended exposure limit</a> (REL) of TWA 2.5 mg/m3 respirable dust over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1250 mg/m3, graphite is <a href="IDLH" class="mw-redirect" title="IDLH">immediately dangerous to life and health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recycling">Recycling</h2></div>

The most common way of recycling graphite occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded for reuse, or the electrode (or other materials) are used all the way down to the electrode holder. A new electrode replaces the old one, but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel.

Graphite-containing <a href="Refractory" title="Refractory">refractories</a> are sometimes also recycled, but often are not due to their low graphite content: the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 15–25% graphite, usually contain too little graphite to be worthwhile to recycle. However, some recycled carbon–magnesite brick is used as the basis for furnace-repair materials, and also crushed carbon–magnesite brick is used in slag conditioners.

While <a href="Crucible" title="Crucible">crucibles</a> have a high graphite content, the volume of crucibles used and then recycled is very small.

A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate. <a href="Leaching_(chemical_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaching (chemical science)">Leaching</a> this concentrate with <a href="Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 <a href="Mesh_(scale)" title="Mesh (scale)">mesh</a> (2 mm) down.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_synthetic_graphite">History of synthetic graphite</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invention_of_a_production_process">Invention of a production process</h3></div>

In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, <a href="Edward_Goodrich_Acheson" title="Edward Goodrich Acheson">Edward Goodrich Acheson</a> (1856–1931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing <a href="Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">carborundum</a> (also called silicon carbide). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that <a href="Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> vaporizes at about 4,150 °C (7,500 °F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-16">[16]</a>

Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the <a href="Acheson_process" title="Acheson process">Acheson process</a>. In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and in 1897 started commercial production.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-16">[16]</a> The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899.

Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</h3></div>

<a href="Highly_oriented_pyrolytic_graphite" title="Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite">Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite</a> (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of <a href="Scanning_probe_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning probe microscope">scanning probe microscopes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-automatic1998-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-real2019-77">[77]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrodes">Electrodes</h3></div>

Graphite <a href="Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> carry the electricity that melts <a href="Scrap_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrap iron">scrap iron</a> and steel, and sometimes <a href="Direct-reduced_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-reduced iron">direct-reduced iron</a> (DRI), in <a href="Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnaces</a>, which are the vast majority of <a href="Steel_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel furnace">steel furnaces</a>. They are made from <a href="Petroleum_coke" title="Petroleum coke">petroleum coke</a> after it is mixed with <a href="Coal_tar_pitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal tar pitch">coal tar pitch</a>. They are extruded and shaped, then baked to <a href="Carbonize" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonize">carbonize</a> the <a href="Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">binder</a> (pitch). This is finally graphitized by heating it to temperatures approaching 3,000 °C (5,430 °F), at which the carbon atoms arrange into graphite. They can vary in size up to 3.5 m (11 ft) long and 75 cm (30 in) in diameter. An increasing proportion of global <a href="Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> is made using electric arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is becoming more efficient, making more steel per tonne of electrode. An estimate based on <a href="USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a> data indicates that graphite electrode consumption was 197,000 t (217,000 short tons) in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

Electrolytic <a href="Aluminium_smelting" title="Aluminium smelting">aluminium smelting</a> also uses graphitic carbon electrodes. On a much smaller scale, synthetic graphite electrodes are used in <a href="Electrical_discharge_machining" title="Electrical discharge machining">electrical discharge machining</a> (EDM), commonly to make <a href="Injection_mold" class="mw-redirect" title="Injection mold">injection molds</a> for <a href="Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pierson_1993_p.-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powder_and_scrap">Powder and scrap</h3></div>

The powder is made by heating powdered <a href="Petroleum_coke" title="Petroleum coke">petroleum coke</a> above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the <a href="United_States_Geographical_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Geographical Survey">United States Geographical Survey</a>, US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were 95,000 t (93,000 long tons; 105,000 short tons) in 2001 (latest data).<a href="#cite_note-usgs-53">[53]</a>

It is possible to create battery-grade graphite by recycling the numerous fines from battery production. The process involves spray drying the fines over petroleum pitch with a binder and cross-linking agent, then drying them.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutron_moderator">Neutron moderator</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nuclear_graphite" title="Nuclear graphite">Nuclear graphite</a></div>

Special grades of synthetic graphite also find use as a matrix and <a href="Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> within <a href="Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>. Its low <a href="Neutron_cross-section" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron cross-section">neutron cross-section</a> also recommends it for use in proposed <a href="Fusion_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion reactor">fusion reactors</a>. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as <a href="Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems – this caused the failure of the Germans' <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> graphite-based nuclear reactors. Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive <a href="Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> moderators. Graphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as <a href="Nuclear_graphite" title="Nuclear graphite">nuclear graphite</a>. Herbert G. McPherson, a Berkeley trained physicist at National Carbon, a division of Union Carbide, was key in confirming a conjecture of Leo Szilard that boron impurities even in "pure" graphite were responsible for a neutron absorption cross-section in graphite that compromised U-235 chain reactions. McPherson was aware of the presence of impurities in graphite because, with the use of Technicolor in cinematography, the spectra of graphite electrode arcs used in movie projectors required impurities to enhance emission of light in the red region to display warmer skin tones on the screen. Thus, had it not been for color movies, chances are that the first sustained natural U chain reaction would have required a heavy water moderated reactor.<a href="#cite_note-Figure11-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses_2">Other uses</h3></div>

<a href="Carbon_(fiber)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon (fiber)">Graphite (carbon) fiber</a> and <a href="Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> are also used in <a href="Carbon_fiber_reinforced_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber reinforced plastic">carbon fiber reinforced plastics</a>, and in heat-resistant composites such as <a href="Reinforced_carbon-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced carbon-carbon">reinforced carbon-carbon</a> (RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include <a href="Fishing_rod" title="Fishing rod">fishing rods</a>, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the <a href="Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">Boeing 787 Dreamliner</a> and <a href="Pool_(cue_sports)" title="Pool (cue sports)">pool</a> <a href="Cue_sticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cue sticks">cue sticks</a> and have been successfully employed in <a href="Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey <a href="Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and <a href="Resin" title="Resin">resin</a>, while the term "composite" is used for <a href="Composite_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite materials">composite materials</a> with additional ingredients.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>

Modern <a href="Smokeless_powder" title="Smokeless powder">smokeless powder</a> is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of <a href="Static_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Static charge">static charge</a>.

Graphite has been used in at least three <a href="Radar_absorbent_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Radar absorbent material">radar absorbent materials</a>. It was mixed with rubber in Sumpf and Schornsteinfeger, which were used on <a href="U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a> <a href="Submarine_snorkel" title="Submarine snorkel">snorkels</a> to reduce their <a href="Radar_cross_section" title="Radar cross section">radar cross section</a>. It was also used in tiles on early <a href="F-117_Nighthawk" class="mw-redirect" title="F-117 Nighthawk">F-117 Nighthawk</a> stealth strike fighters.

Graphite composites are used as absorber for high-energy particles, for example in the <a href="Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> beam dump.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>

Glassworking tools are often made from graphite since it will not stick to hot molten glass, unlike metal tools and moulds which require coatings or lubricants, which are themselves often graphite-based. <a href="Glass_production" title="Glass production">Automated glassworking</a> machines make significant use of graphite for handling the molten glass and freshly formed items.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_innovation">Research and innovation</h2></div>

Globally, over 60,000 <a href="Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> families in graphite technologies were filed from 2012 to 2021. <a href="Patent_application" title="Patent application">Patents were filed</a> by applicants from over 60 countries and regions. However, graphite-related patent families originated predominantly from just a few countries. <a href="China" title="China">China</a> was the top contributor with more than 47,000 patent families, accounting for four in every five graphite patent families filed worldwide in the last decade. Among other leading countries were <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, the <a href="South_Korea" title="South Korea">Republic of Korea</a>, the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a>. Together, these top five countries of applicant origin accounted for 95 percent of global patenting output related to graphite.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a>

Among the different graphite sources, <a href="Flake_graphite" class="mw-redirect" title="Flake graphite">flake graphite</a> has the highest number of patent families, with more than 5,600 filed worldwide from 2012 to 2021. Supported by active <a href="Research" title="Research">research</a> from its commercial entities and research institutions, China is the country most actively exploiting flake graphite and has contributed to 85 percent of global patent filings in this area.

At the same time, innovations exploring new synthesis methods and uses for artificial graphite are gaining interest worldwide, as countries seek to exploit the superior material qualities associated with this man-made substance and reduce reliance on the natural material. Patenting activity is strongly led by commercial entities, particularly world-renowned battery manufacturers and <a href="Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> material suppliers, with patenting interest focused on <a href="Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a> anode applications.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a>

The exfoliation process for bulk graphite, which involves separating the <a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> layers within graphite, has been extensively studied between 2012 and 2021. Specifically, ultrasonic and thermal exfoliation have been the two most popular approaches worldwide, with 4,267 and 2,579 patent families, respectively, significantly more than for either the chemical or electrochemical alternatives.

Global patenting activity relating to ultrasonic exfoliation has decreased over the years, indicating that this low-cost technique has become well established. Thermal exfoliation is a more recent process. Compared to ultrasonic exfoliation, this fast and solvent-free thermal approach has attracted greater commercial interest.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a>

As the most widespread anode material for <a href="Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion batteries</a>, graphite has drawn significant attention worldwide for use in <a href="Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a> applications. With over 8,000 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, battery applications were a key driver of global graphite-related inventions. Innovations in this area are led by battery manufacturers or anode suppliers who have amassed sizable patent portfolios focused strongly on battery performance improvements based on graphite <a href="Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> innovation. Besides industry players, academia and research institutions have been an essential source of innovation in graphite anode technologies.

Graphite for <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> applications was an innovation hot topic from 2012 to 2021, with over 8,000 patent families recorded worldwide. However, in recent years, in the top countries of applicant origin in this area, including China, Japan and the United States of America (US), patent filings have decreased.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a>

Graphite for <a href="Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">manufacturing ceramics</a> represents another area of intensive research, with over 6,000 patent families registered in the last decade alone. Specifically, graphite for <a href="Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> accounted for over one-third of ceramics-related graphite patent families in China and about one-fifth in the rest of the world. Other important graphite applications include high-value ceramic materials such as <a href="Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a> for specific industries, ranging from electrical and electronics, aerospace and precision engineering to military and <a href="Nuclear_graphite" title="Nuclear graphite">nuclear applications</a>.

<a href="Brush_(electric)" title="Brush (electric)">Carbon brushes</a> represent a long-explored graphite application area. There have been few inventions in this area over the last decade, with less than 300 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, very significantly less than between 1992 and 2011.

<a href="Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedical</a>, <a href="Sensor" title="Sensor">sensor</a>, and <a href="Conductive_ink" title="Conductive ink">conductive ink</a> are emerging application areas for graphite that have attracted interest from both academia and commercial entities, including renowned universities and multinational corporations. Typically for an <a href="Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">emerging technology</a> area, related <a href="Patent_application" title="Patent application">patent families were filed</a> by various organizations without any players dominating. As a result, the top applicants have a small number of <a href="Inventions" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions">inventions</a>, unlike in well-explored areas, where they will have strong technology accumulation and large patent portfolios. The innovation focus of these three emerging areas is highly scattered and can be diverse, even for a single applicant. However, recent inventions are seen to leverage the development of graphite <a href="Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a>, particularly graphite <a href="Nanocomposite" title="Nanocomposite">nanocomposites</a> and <a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Balama_mine" title="Balama mine">Balama mine</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_(fiber)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon (fiber)">Carbon fiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon nanotube</a></li>

<li><a href="Exfoliated_graphite_nano-platelets" class="mw-redirect" title="Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets">Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets</a></li>

<li><a href="Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerene</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphitizing_and_non-graphitizing_carbons" title="Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons">Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons</a></li>

<li><a href="Intumescent" title="Intumescent">Intumescent</a></li>

<li><a href="Lonsdaleite" title="Lonsdaleite">Lonsdaleite</a></li>

<li><a href="Passive_fire_protection" title="Passive fire protection">Passive fire protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyrolytic_carbon" title="Pyrolytic carbon">Pyrolytic carbon</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

This article incorporates text from a <a href="Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC-BY. Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1083-en-patent-landscape-report-graphite-and-its-applications.pdf">Patent Landscape Report - Graphite and its applications</a>, WIPO.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Figure11-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Figure11_80-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Alvin M. (1994). The First Nuclear Era. New York, N.Y.: American Institute of Physics. Figure 11. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1563963582</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Cooper, Jeff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tennis.about.com/od/tennisracquetsfaq/f/faqracquets42.htm">What is the best material for a tennis racquet?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707075415/http://tennis.about.com/od/tennisracquetsfaq/f/faqracquets42.htm">Archived</a> 2011-07-07 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. tennis.about.com

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFYurkewicz" class="citation web cs1">Yurkewicz, Katie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200712/protecting_the_lhc.pdf">"Protecting the LHC from itself"</a> (PDF). Symmetry Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910023817/http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200712/protecting_the_lhc.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-10.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOlmec_Advanced_Materials2019" class="citation web cs1">Olmec Advanced Materials (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.olmec.co.uk/graphite_and_carbon_use_in_glass_ceramics_industry.htm">"How graphite is used in the glass and fibreglass industries"</a>. Retrieved 19 January 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lubesngreases.com/magazine/22_11/breaking-the-mold/">"Breaking the Mold"</a>. Lubes'N'Greases. 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2025-01-25.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization.2023" class="citation journal cs1">World Intellectual Property Organization. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4649&plang=EN">"Patent Landscape Report - Graphite and its applications"</a>. www.wipo.int. Patent Landscape Reports. <a href="WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.47589">10.34667/tind.47589</a>. Retrieved 2023-11-13.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLipsonStokes1942" class="citation journal cs1">Lipson, H.; Stokes, A. R. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F149328a0">"A New Structure of Carbon"</a>. Nature. 149 (3777): 328. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942Natur.149Q.328L">1942Natur.149Q.328L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F149328a0">10.1038/149328a0</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36502694">36502694</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFC.Michael_HoganMarc_Papineau1989" class="citation report cs1">C.Michael Hogan; Marc Papineau; et al. (December 18, 1989). <a href="Phase_I_Environmental_Site_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase I Environmental Site Assessment">Phase I Environmental Site Assessment</a>, Asbury Graphite Mill, 2426–2500 Kirkham Street, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics report 10292.001 (Report).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKlein,_CornelisCornelius_S._Hurlbut,_Jr.1985" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Cornelis; Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manualofmineralo00klei">Manual of Mineralogy: after Dana</a> (20th ed.). Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-471-80580-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_Harold_A.2000" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Harold A. (2000). Graphite. Financial Times Executive Commodity Reports. London: Mining Journal Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84083-332-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_Harold_A.2005" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Harold A. (2005). Graphite. Industrial Minerals and Rocks (7th ed.). Littleton, CO: AIME-Society of Mining Engineers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87335-233-8</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Graphite" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Graphite">Graphite</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215345/http://www.northerngraphite.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Concern-over-battery-grade-graphite-supplies.pdf">Battery Grade Graphite</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minerals.net/mineral/graphite.aspx">Graphite at Minerals.net</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050522074754/http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/graphite/graphite.htm">Mineral galleries</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mineral-exploration.de/maps/worldgraphitemapen.gif">Mineral & Exploration</a> – Map of World Graphite Mines and Producers 2012</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=1740&ld=1&pho=">Mindat w/ locations</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/giantcov.html">giant covalent structures</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/graphite.html">The Graphite Page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/316">Video lecture on the properties of graphite by M. Heggie</a>, <a href="University_of_Sussex" title="University of Sussex">University of Sussex</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0306.html">CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Allotropes_of_carbon203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">Allotropes of carbon</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">sp3 <a href="Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Diamond" title="Diamond">Diamond (cubic)</a></li>

<li><a href="Lonsdaleite" title="Lonsdaleite">Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">sp2 forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a></li>

<li><a href="Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerenes</a>, including <a href="Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">C60 (buckminsterfullerene)</a>, <a href="C70_fullerene" title="C70 fullerene">C70</a>, <a href="Fullerene_whiskers" title="Fullerene whiskers">Fullerene whiskers</a>, <a href="Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Nanotubes</a>, <a href="Carbon_nanobud" title="Carbon nanobud">Nanobuds</a>, <a href="Carbon_nanoscrolls" title="Carbon nanoscrolls">Nanoscrolls</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Glassy_carbon" title="Glassy carbon">Glassy carbon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">sp forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Linear_acetylenic_carbon" title="Linear acetylenic carbon">Linear acetylenic carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclo(6)carbon" title="Cyclo(6)carbon">C 6 (cyclo[6]carbon)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclo(18)carbon" title="Cyclo(18)carbon">C 18 (cyclo[18]carbon)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">mixed sp3/sp2 forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amorphous_carbon" title="Amorphous carbon">Amorphous carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_nanofoam" title="Carbon nanofoam">Carbon nanofoam</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbide-derived_carbon" title="Carbide-derived carbon">Carbide-derived carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Q-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Q-carbon">Q-carbon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atomic_carbon" title="Atomic carbon">C 1 (atomic carbon)</a></li>

<li><a href="Diatomic_carbon" title="Diatomic carbon">C 2 (diatomic carbon)</a></li>

<li><a href="Tricarbon" title="Tricarbon">C 3 (tricarbon)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">hypothetical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cyclopropatriene" title="Cyclopropatriene">C 3 (cyclopropatriene)</a></li>

<li><a href="Prismane_C8" class="mw-redirect" title="Prismane C8">C 6 (prismane C8)</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaoite" title="Chaoite">Chaoite</a></li>

<li><a href="Haeckelites" title="Haeckelites">Haeckelites</a></li>

<li><a href="Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes" title="Allotropes of carbon">Cubic carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes" title="Allotropes of carbon">Metallic carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Penta-graphene" title="Penta-graphene">Penta-graphene</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_black" title="Carbon black">Carbon black</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Charcoal</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Aggregated_diamond_nanorod" title="Aggregated diamond nanorod">Aggregated diamond nanorod</a></li>

<li><a href="Gas_carbon" title="Gas carbon">Gas carbon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coal204" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Coal204" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coal types by grade (lowest to highest)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Xylit" title="Xylit">Xylit</a></li>

<li><a href="Lignite" title="Lignite">Lignite</a></li>

<li><a href="Sub-bituminous_coal" title="Sub-bituminous coal">Sub-bituminous coal</a></li>

<li><a href="Bituminous_coal" title="Bituminous coal">Bituminous coal</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthracite" title="Anthracite">Anthracite</a></li>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coal combustion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Asian_brown_cloud" title="Asian brown cloud">Asian brown cloud</a></li>

<li><a href="Asthma" title="Asthma">Asthma</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_coal_equivalent" title="Black coal equivalent">Black coal equivalent</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Charcoal</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Coal_combustion_products" title="Coal combustion products">combustion products</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">fired power station</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_phase-out" title="Coal phase-out">phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_pollution_mitigation" title="Coal pollution mitigation">pollution mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_power_in_China" title="Coal power in China">power in China</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_power_in_the_United_States" title="Coal power in the United States">power in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_preparation_plant" title="Coal preparation plant">preparation plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Coking" title="Coking">Coking</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_value_of_coal" title="Energy value of coal">Energy value</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Smog_of_London" title="Great Smog of London">Great Smog of London</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li>

<li><a href="Metallurgical_coal" title="Metallurgical coal">Metallurgical coal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_heavy_metal" title="Toxic heavy metal">Toxic heavy metals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blackdamp" title="Blackdamp">Blackdamp</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_lung_disease" title="Black lung disease">Black lung disease</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_coalfields" title="List of coalfields">Coalfields</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_homogenization" title="Coal homogenization">homogenization</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_liquefaction" title="Coal liquefaction">liquefaction</a></li>

<li>mining disasters in the United States</li>

<li><a href="Coal-mining_region" title="Coal-mining region">mining region</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_refuse" title="Coal refuse">refuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_slurry" title="Coal slurry">slurry</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_issues_in_Appalachia" title="Environmental issues in Appalachia">Environmental issues in Appalachia</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_justice_and_coal_mining_in_Appalachia" title="Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia">Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia</a></li>

<li><a href="Firedamp" title="Firedamp">Firedamp</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">Health and environmental impact of the coal industry</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_effects_of_coal_ash" title="Health effects of coal ash">Health effects of coal ash</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">History of coal mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal-mining_region" title="Coal-mining region">Mining regions</a></li>

<li><a href="Outburst_(mining)" title="Outburst (mining)">Outbursts</a></li>

<li><a href="Problems_in_coal_mining" title="Problems in coal mining">Problems in coal mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Refined_coal" title="Refined coal">Refined coal</a></li>

<li><a href="Whitedamp" title="Whitedamp">Whitedamp</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Notes: [1] Peat is considered a precursor to coal. [2] Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5309#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1787" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5309#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1787" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4158067-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85056487">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12152787z">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12152787z">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566328">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120599&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX531308">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538430005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/0cccb24c-75a8-444f-b320-06b90de73594">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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